Ted Bundy and Psychodynamic Theory Essay -- Psychology

Theodore Bundy was born on November 24th 1946. He was born to an unwed mother who was told that she was his sister. He was raised by his grandparents who portrayed themselves as his parents end-to-end his early childhood years. According to the article I read Teds grandfather was abusive towards Ted and his other siblings (Montaldo). Ted was shy and said to be sociably awkward, exclusively during high school he developed into good looking guy and was liked by many. Ted met his first girlfriend in college and eventually falls in love. His girlfriend did not see Ted as someone who would be successful and eventually broke up with him and this broke his heart. This was about the time he knowledgeable the truth about his family too. He developed deep depression and this marked the time his killing ventures started. Teds breakup with his girlfriend was a huge extend to him. It seemed that his problems really came to surface after this point. He became quite dysfunctional at the time. The breakup could be marked under Axis III (Comer, 2011). This is a commonplace medical condition that Ted suffers from as an adult.Ted Bundys style of killing describes sexual sadism. Sexual sadism is the intense sexually arousal by the thought or coiffure of inflicting suffering on others by dominating, restraining, blindfolding, cutting, strangling, mutilating, or even killing the victim (Comer, 2011). This condition would fall under Axis I because it causes significant impairment.Ted Bundy had antisocial nature disorder which is on axis II of the DSM-IV-TR. He is characterized by the following failure to conform to social norms with respect to lawful behaviors as indicated by repeatedly performing acts that are grounds for arrest, deceitfulness, ... ...articipate in therapy. They do not see that they need to change anything. While doing my research on Ted I do remember he was ready for change. I think that therapy sessions to uncover inner turmoil along wit h medication may wealthy person helped Ted. It would have been interesting to see if these treatments would have worked.Works CitedComer, R. J. (2011). Fundamentals of Abnormal Psychology, 6th edition. New York Worth Publishers.Midwest Behavioral Health Network. (2009, September). Guidelines to use of Axis V Global Assessment execution Scale. South Bend, IN, United States of America.Montaldo, C. (n.d.). About.com. Retrieved August 12, 2011, from http//crime.about.com/od/serial/p/tedbundy.htmVarcarolis, E. M., Carson, V. B., & Shoemaker, N. C. (2006). In Foundations of Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing (p. 283). St. Louis Elsevier Inc.

Slaying the Dragon Essay -- essays research papers

Slaying the Dragon How Asian Women were Portrayed in MoviesSlaying the Dragon by Deborah Gee is a comprehensive look at media stereotypes of Asian and Asian American women since the silent era. From the racist use of white actors to portray Asians in early Hollywood films, through the success of Anna May Wongs sinister dragon lady, to Suzie Wong and the 50s geisha girls, to the Asian-American anchorwoman of today. The movie also shows how stereotypes of exoticism and docility have affected the perception of Asian-American women.In many movies Asian women are sexually sort as exotic, subservient, compliant, industrious, and eager to please. If not that, Japanese women are shown to be inherently scheming, untrustworthy, and back-stabbing. Whichever representation is used ...

Slaying the Dragon Essay -- essays research papers

Slaying the Dragon How Asian Women were Portrayed in MoviesSlaying the Dragon by Deborah gram is a comprehensive look at media stereotypes of Asian and Asian American women since the silent era. From the racist use of white actors to portray Asians in early Hollywood films, through the success of Anna May Wongs sinister dragon lady, to Suzie Wong and the 50s geisha girls, to the Asian-American anchorwoman of today. The movie also shows how stereotypes of exoticism and docility have affected the perception of Asian-American women.In legion(predicate) movies Asian women are sexually stereotyped as exotic, subservient, compliant, industrious, and eager to please. If not that, Japanese women are shown to be inherently scheming, untrustworthy, and back-stabbing. Whichever representation is used ...

Littlefield Lab Essay

Since the beginning the team decided to try an aggressive strategy to win the game, assuming a riskier position with higher(prenominal) potential benefits and costs. For that, it was necessary to identify happen upon parameters of the process and design a dashboard to analyze the information and make decisions in a faster way. The key parameters we started monitoring were demand (jobs accepted), stations utilization and lead times of the entire process. The first goal was to balance the line and satisfying the demand.Demand analysis and its congener to order kitsIn order to predict the future flows of the demand and match the info with the kit orders we create a model in attempting to avoid impart breaks or overstocks and anticipate the barter for of machines. The model considered the median demand of last 2 weeks projected with the growth rate of those weeks.Utilization of stations and its relation to purchase machines In order to to satisfy the demand, generate equilibrium in t he capacity of the 3 stations, and avoid bottlenecks to get the maximum profit with the contract 3, the purchasing of fresh machines were made when utilization of any station was steadely over 80% and was justified by the cost-benefit analysis.Cost-benefit analysis to purchase machinesConsidering a demand of 30, 60 & 90, the pay affirm time will be 29, 15 & 10 days on ideal conditions. Changing the contractsWhen the balance was achieved on the process, then we started to intervene contracts since contract 3 provides the best profitability when the Lab is able to accomplish a promised lead time of 0.5 days being careful of change to contract 2 or 1 if the promised lead time would not be accomplished due to the circumstantial conditions of the process. To optimize the profitability of the jobs received on the first day of all week, we began to modify the contracts according to the following criteria snub 1 If machine 1 had more than 3 jobs waiting for kits on last day of the previ ous week. Contract 2 If machine 1 had between 1 to 3 jobs waitingfor kits on last day of the previous week. Contract 3 If machine 1 had 0 jobs waiting for kits on last day of the previous week. Finally, on day 150 we try an all in strategy spending $160.000 in 1 machine for station 1 and 2 to increase the capacity and to process jobs only on conditions of contract 3. This decision was taken based on a demand of 91 jobs and a utilization of station 1 of 0.83 between days 143 and 149.Profits analysisThe table shows the sources and uses of cash including the analysis of main items.DescriptionAmount, $CommentsStarting Cash+ 1.000.000Revenue+2.770.670 493, 226 & 1981 jobs were accepted under contract 1, 2 & 3 respectively. $ 3.072.000 was the maximum possible revenue.(Calculations 493 x $ 750 + 226 x $ 1.000 + 1.981 x $ 1.250) $ 301.220 were befuddled for non-fulfillment of the contracts.(Calculations $ 3.072.000 2.770.670)Interest+81.993Stationpurchases-560.000 4 stations N1 were bought on days 61,115, 141 and 150. 2 stations N2 were bought on days 116 and 150. solely stations were bought at a certain time which ensures that the investment were payed back before the day 314 considering a pay back period 10-29 days for distributively station (see cost-benefit analysis). Inventory-1.704.600 2.841 kits were bought (including kits ordered by default). 2.566 kits were ordered on the review period corresponding to day 7. 2.700 jobs were accepted.Inefficiencies 134 kits were needed but not ordered (2.700-2.566 kits).They epitomise maximum losses of $ 167.500 (134 x $ 1.250) 141 kits were ordered but not needed (2.841-2.700 kits).They represent losses of $ 84.600 (141 x $ 600)Cash Balance1.588.064The cash balance shows that investments on machines and kits were payed back but was not possible to get a better profitability because orders were only 80/week instead 91/week as we predicted on day 150.Conclusion The Lab purchased the first 4 machines too late, so t he up-grade of the process and the pay back of the investments were got too late, affecting profits. The Lab should not have purchased last 2 machines (station 1 &2), since they were not needed to serve 80 orders/week (demand after day 150 was overestimated). It would have saved $ 160.000. The contracts were not changed on time, so because of that there was a maximum lost of $ 301.220. The kits were ordered including the number of jobs waiting for kits at the end of each week, because we do not wee that they were ordered by default. It would saved a maximum of $ 84.600. The Lab should have worked with LIFO instead FIFO system considering that kits queued for station 1 were mostly already late to be ready at the lead time of 0.5 days under contract 3.

How did Khrushchev and Brezhnev respond to rebellions

How did Khrushchev and Brezhnev respond to rebellions in some of the communist satellite states? Give specific examples of countries that rebelled, why they rebelled and an analysis of the responses by Khrushchev and Brezhnev to the rebellions Khrushchevs decision for de-Stalinization movements had repercussions in the Communist countries of Eastern Europe. Poland revolted against its government in October 1956. Hungary followed shortly afterward. Faced with open revolution, Khrushchev flew to Warsaw on October 19 with Soviet leaders and ultimately acquiesced in the Polish leader Wladyshaw Gomulkas field of study Communist solution, which allowed the Poles a great deal of independence.Khrushchevs shared decisions to crush the Hungarian renewing by force came largely because of the Hungarian premiers decision to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact. With this one exception Khrushchev allowed a considerable amount of freedom to the European Communist parties and this stress in Eastern Euro pe it helped to crystallized opposition to Khrushchev within the Soviet Party. His stand on reforms in economics and political sympathies in the Soviet Union caused many enemies and party officials ended up removing him for military group and replacing him with Brezhnev who opened the doors to the West for the soviet people and this was especially potent to the younger citizens of the population. Khrushchev widely asserted his doctrine of peaceful coexistence which he had first spoke of in a speech at the 20th Party Congress.When Brezhnev came into power he left many affairs to other officials in the party, such as diplomatic relations with non-Communist states and internal economic development. Brezhnev concentrated on impertinent and military affairs and undertook measures to curtail ideological dissidence within the Soviet Union. He traveled extensively to foreign countries between 1961 and 1964. He made visits to all the European Communist countries, except Albania to improv e solidarity within the Communist block.But when Czechoslovakia attempted to liberalize its Communist system of government and party control, Brezhnev developed the concept, known as the Brezhnev teaching that justified the invasion of Czechoslovakia by its Warsaw Pact partners. During the 70s Brezhnev attempted to ease tensions with the West, especially the U.S. in a new policy of coexistence. It was during this clock time that under Brezhnevs rule Soviet military power was significantly increased and modernized, and the Soviet Union pursued a policy of supporting wars of national liberation in developing countries. In domestic policy he was preoccupied with neutralizing internal dissent and seeking to improve the performance of the Soviet providence particularly in agriculture and consumer goods, with little or no success.Works CitedTreadgold, Donald W. and Herbert J. Ellison. Twentieth Century Russia. Bolder, Colorado Westview Press, 2000.

Into the Wild Trans Essay

Transcendentalism is a long word to describe very desolate-minded people. Throughout the novel Into the Wild Chris McCandless, the main character, ventures impinge on into the wild to down nature at a in-person level. Chris comes from a household in which personal relationships, between him and his parents, were non present. While living in this environment, Chris never unfeignedly felt as if he belonged. It did not take too long before Chris had packed up his bags with nothing but a rifle, rice, and a roadmap and was off into the wilderness.The actions and thoughts in which Chris had loved resembled those of a transcendentalist thinker. The most distinct three transcendentalists in whom he coincided with include Whitman, Thoreau, and Emerson. During Chriss journey, he spent the fair majority of his conviction camping out or exploring what nature had to offer him. Miles and miles from home, Chris had started to feel a little sense of relief. Whitman was a sozzled believer in the idea of insularity of one egotism from everything in coiffe to feel relieved and free to learn and understand who they truly are.This technique helps one to truly get to know themselves and the person that they actu whollyy are, not who they are when they are living under the standards of society. Once Chris had reached a resting place far enough away from home the author described his convey as follows, He was unheeded, happy, and near to the wild heart of life. He was alone and young and willful and wildhearted, alone amid a waste of wild air and unpalatable waters and the seaharvest of shells and tangled and veiled grey sunlight (31).This helps to reveal that as Chris got farther and farther into the wilderness and away from society he was overjoyed and all wrapped up in nature and what it has to offer. Whitman himself also spent a sufficient amount of time amongst nature. His spot was in a dark and swart swamp, a place in which people do not usually follow. During h is time there, he studied nature, plants and animals all in which helped his to unravel himself. Likewise, Chris came to some personal realizations in which he didnt know before.I prefer the saddle to the streetcar and the star-spangled sky to a roof, the obscure and difficult trail, leading into the unknown, to whatever paved highway, and the deep peace of the wild to the discontent bred by cities(87). This statement was made by Chris, when he finally de bettered from the city and into the free land. If he had not left he would have continued to belief that he wantd what he was experiencing in society. When people do not know any separate way of living, they truly do not know what else is out there. During ones childhood they are placed under the standards of society and do not know any better, this was Chriss way of breaking free.Chris experienced himself through studying and living amongst nature, just as Whitman did. On this expedition, not just now did Chris connect with n ature, but he also found that inner connection with himself. Thoreau theorized that if man was to become unconcerned with his outward person and only follow and peppy by the needs and desires of ones self they would thrive and live in a natural state. He advocated that alone in the woods one is stripped of their pointion, because there is no one to express ideas and thought to except oneself.If there is no one or no society to force fake expression what is found is the real and true self and identity. Chris had escaped from the society standards and was finally left to be on his own. After recognizing this he suggests that, As if all your life you had been led by the hand like a small child and suddenly you were on your own, you have to learn to walk by yourself. There was no one around, neither your family nor people whose view you respected(103). No longer did Chris have to follow traditions, customs, or rules. Once Chris had abandoned society, he had left certain regulations a nd standards, leaving him to be himself.Chris was almost get-go on a fresh slate and striving to find his own identity. This coincides with Thoreaus belief that by living alone in the woods, one could hand a state of tranquility and through experience he could come to a better understanding of life and the self. By testing and experiencing saucily ideas, in the eyes of Thoreau, one was truly living the life. Throughout Chriss adventure, there were numerous times where he would stop and reflect on another part of himself in which he had just recognized and discovered.Later on in the novel Chris blissfully exclaims, The beauty of this country is becoming part of me. I feel more detached from life and somewhat gentler () I have always been unsatisfied with life as most people live it. Always I want to live more intensely and richly (91). As stated before, Chris had always felt as though he was and had to live up to a certain standard and it was sincerely starting to debilitate him. As soon as Chris started to think for himself and make his own decisions, which is necessary to tolerate in the wild, he realized his own ideals and the way in which he wanted to live his life.Just as Thoreau theorized, Chris would not have not had the king to live the life if he hadnt had gone out and tested/experienced new ideas. Courage and self-trust really motivated Chris to keep going and to not give up hope. Emerson was a strong supporter of the phrase trust thyself. He believed that every individual possesses a unique identity that can only be revealed when the individual has the courage to trust his or her own thoughts, attitudes, and inclinations even when the public may not approve.During Chriss trip he never really knew what to expect when he departed and as he continued on. Setting out in small, open boats, built from cowhide stretched over light caning frames, they crossed one of the most treacherous stretches of ocean in the world without knowing what, if anything, theyd find on the other side (97). Just as all the other people to go out and take on this same challenge, courage and trust from within was what kept them going. If Chris had not have believed in himself that he could go out and survive on this journey he may not even have made it out the door.Emerson had a strong opinion that each individual must develop a personal understanding of the universe. Chris really reflected this opinion in his desire to go out and experience the world on a more personal level. Emerson writes in Prospects, The reason why the world lacks unity, and lies broken in heaps, is because man is disunited with himself. Emerson believes that in order for a strong society to develop each individual needs to have a strong sense of who they are.This was one of the main reasons why Chris went on this trip, to figure out who he truly was. Throughout the novel, Chris McCandless resembles all three of these transcendentalist thinkers. Whether it was through his actions or thoughts, Chris exemplifies many ideals and beliefs of these men. If it was not for Chriss free mind and free spirit he may not have ever thought to encounter such a journey. Although the journey did not turn out salutary in the end, Chris learned bountiful lessons that benefitted him as an individual.

Assessing Writing Skills in a Communicative Paradigm Essay

Communicative Language exam is intended to assess learners ability to using the target run-in in realistic life situations. Its in a flash ten years since Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has been introduced in secondary slope curriculum of Bangladesh. Therefore, the seek of side at the SSC level is now veneering the challenges of assessing learners communicative skills. This study looks at the existing model of the SSC side test and explores the possibilities of incorporating a to a greater extent communicatively based test format. The study is carried out on the foothold of an evaluation of the test heads on make-up skills set in the SSC test cover.It as well as explores the views of Bangladeshi secondary side teachers and internationally renowned Language Testing Experts. In this paper, it is argued that, though secondary English education in Bangladesh has stepped into a communicative era ten years back, the current SSC test is not in accordance with the curricu lum objectives. It is found that the test items on piece lack dickens validity and reliability. Suggestions made for improving the current SSC test embroil be the purpose of communication in English for SSC level learners, drafting test specifications, setting test items which atomic number 18 more relevant to a communicative purpose, and develop a scaling scheme to mark the subjective items.IntroductionThe excogitation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has had much influence in the fields of English spoken language teaching, curriculum and test design. Since the 1970s, there have been considerable developments in the bea of language interrogation. Various theories and practical testing models have evolved following the concept of communicative competence. Bangladesh has introduced a communicative English curriculum at its secondary education sector.However, the aims and objectives of the communicative curriculum can never be achieved without a testing establish ment that assesses the communicative ability of learners. This paper looks at the existing Secondary direct Certificate (SSC) English tryout to identify the elements of communicative testing in it and examines the suitability of this testing system to the curriculum goals. The study involves a critical analysis of the current SSC test. It similarly explores the views of Bangladeshi secondary English teachers and dickens internationally renowned language testing experts on the SSC test and investigates the slipway of making it more communicatively based.Background of English Language Teaching (ELT) in BangladeshThe teaching of English in Bangladesh has a long history that traces back to the colonial era. However, the British models of teaching English continued to influence the ELT scenario of post-colonial Bengal even after the colonial shape was over in 1947. Since then the grammar translation method continued to influence the ELT scenario as the most dominant teaching method in the Indian subcontinent. later on the independence of Bangladesh (1971), several attempts were made to re-design ELT sector with little or no success.In 1990, a four year ELT project called Orientation of Secondary School Teachers for Teaching English in Bangladesh (OSSTTEB) was jointly launched by the Government of Bangladesh and DFID, UK to improve English Language Teaching and Learning at secondary level. This project revised, suitable and revamped the secondary English curriculum (Hoque, 1999). In 1997, a major step was initiated with the introduction of English Language Teaching Improvement Project (ELTIP). The project started on the job(p) with a view to improving the communicative competence of the secondary level learners. Under this project, a communicative curriculum, revised text books and newly pen Teachers Guides (TGs) were authentic and near 30 thousand English teachers, test administrators, and markers were trained.The SSC examinationThe SSC is the first pub lic examination in Bangladesh that learners sit for after 10 years of schooling. Students beat back English as a compulsory subject at this level. The examination is administered countrywide through the seven Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISE). The interrogation papers argon set by the respective BISE independently following the national curriculum and program of National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB). The computer programme memorandum of NCTB explicitly recommends a testing system that is in keeping with the spirits of CLT. The new syllabus document for classes 9-10 (NCTB 1999 135) mentions, Until and unless a suitable public examination is devised that tests English language skills rather than students ability to memorise and copy without understanding, the aims and objectives of the syllabus can never be realised. Moreover samples of question papers were provided in the TGs and Teachers were further to follow the test models.Research QuestionsThis study is alludeed with the following question questions 1. How ar students writing skills tested by the existing SSC English examinations? 2. To what fulfilment are these test items communicatively based? 3. What do Bangladeshi teachers and the international testing experts think of the current SSC English examination? 4. How can the SSC examination be improved to beam the goals stated in the national curriculum and syllabus document?Research methodologyThe approach to this resaerch belongs to the interpretative epistemology which argues that experience, in social research, is concerned not with popularization, anticipation and control but with interpretation, meaning and illumination (Usher, 1996 12). The approach here is guided by the belief that reality is a complex phenomenon which does not admit straight events or simple cause-effect relationship. The data used is not only concerned with facts but also with values.In looking at a testing system which is comparatively n ew in the context of Bangladesh, it is admitted that reality is a human construct. The aim here is to explore perspectives and shared meanings (Wellington, 2000 16) and the data used here is qualitative.The research procedure uses triplet different sources for collecting data and involves three steps. They are a) a critical evaluation of the SSC English test format, b) collecting the views of Bangladeshi English teachers through questionnaires and, c) interviewing the two Australian testing experts based at Melbourne Univeristy. The evaluation of SSC examination includes a close analysis of the existing SSC test papers, syllabus document and marking criteria. The questionnaire attempts to explore the values and attitudes of secondary English teachers in relation to the SSC English testing system. The interviews with the language testing experts are intended to generate priceless ideas that could be applicable in improving the testing system of SSC.The development of modern languag e testingThe development of modern language testing occurred in three historical phases prior to and during the 1970s. These three periods are- the scientific era, the psychometric-structuralist era and the unifying sociolinguistic era Spolsky (19785). According to Spolsky, the pre-scientific era was characterised by a lack of concern for statistical matters or for such notions as objectivity and reliability in language testing whereas the psychometric-structuralist period was concerned with tests that focus on discrete item tests. In fact, the psychometric-structuralist approach provided the basis for the flourishing of the standardised language test with its emphasis on discrete structure point items. However, discrete point tests were also criticised for being insufficient indicators of language proficiency (Oller 1979 212). Language testing was directed to global tests in the 1970s, which opened up the psycholinguistic-sociolinguistic era (Weir, 1988 3). This format of global a nd integrative tests (such as cloze) gained theoretical support from many researchers.Davies distinguishes four important types of language tests on the basis of their function or use- achievement tests, proficiency tests, aptitude tests and symptomatic tests (Davies and Allan 1977 46-7). While achievement tests are concerned with assessing what has been learned of a cognize syllabus, proficiency tests are based on assessing the learning of either a known or unknown syllabus.The concept of communicative competenceThe idea of communicative language teaching emerged in the 1970s following Hymes theory of communicative competence, which greatly emphasised learners ability to use language in context, particularly, in foothold of social demands of exercise (McNamara, 2000 116). Hymes believes that knowing a language is more than knowing its rules. in maven case Hymes proposed the idea of communicative competence, it was expanded in various ways during the following two decades. The t erm competence was interpreted in many different ways by researchers. To some it simply means the ability to distribute to others it means the social rules of language use and to yet other, it refers to a set of abilities including knowledge of linguistics, socio-linguistics and intercourse rules (Bachman & Palmar, 1984 34). However, the basic idea of communicative competence remains the ability to use language appropriately, both receptively and productively, in real situations (Kiato, et al. 1996 1)The development of communicative language testingThe idea of communicative testing was developed on the basis of Hymes two dimensional model of communicative competence that comprises a linguistic and a sociolinguistic element. Davies et al. gives the following definition of communicative language testsCommunicative tests are tests of communicative skills, typically used in contradistinction to tests of grammatical knowledge. Such tests often introduce to operationalise theories of c ommunicative competence, although the form they take will depend on which dimension they choose to emphasise, be it specificity to context, authenticity of materials or the simulation of real life performance. (Davies et al. 1999 26)Harrison mentions three ingredients which distinguishes a communicative language test from other tests. He argues1. A communicative test should assess language used for a purpose beyond itself. 2. A communicative test should depend on the bridging of an information gap. It has to propose a language using purpose which can be fulfilled by the communicative skill so far acquired by the learners. 3. A communicative test should represent an encounter. The situation at the end of it should be different from what it was at the beginning, and this means that there has to be some sequence within the test.(Harrison, 1983 77-8)Competence Vs performanceThere have been debates among the researchers regarding the nature and function of communicative tests. One exha ust of controversy was how to specify the components of communicative competence and to relate them in measuring performances. Another complication arose as the terms competence and performance were used differently by various researchers suggesting important distinctions between them. Chomsky (1965) claimed that competence refers to the linguistic system which an ideal native speaker has internalized whereas performance is mainly concerned with the psychological factors that are involved in the perception and production of speech.Later Hymes (1972) explicitly, and Campbell and Wales (1970) implicitly proposed a broader notion of communicative competence in which they included grammatical competence as well as contextual or sociolinguistic competence. They, however, adopted the distinction between communicative competence and performance. According to Canale and Swain (1980 3) competence refers to knowledge of grammar and other aspects of language while performance refers to authe ntic use.For the language testing researchers it was elusive to determine an ideal test model, which could be valid and reliable copious to test communicativecompetence. They were concerned with what performances for travail based activities need to be devised in order to assess learners communicative competence. The most discussed answer to this query is the one provided by Canale and Swain (1980) who, in their influential work Approaches to Second Language Testing specified four aspects of knowledge or competence- grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, strategical competence and discourse competence.What firebrands good communicative tests?Though a communicative language test intents to measure how students use language in real life, it is difficult to set a task that can measure communicative competence in real contexts. Ellison (2001 44) argues that testing by its very nature is artificial and unless we are to follow an examinee around all the time noting how h e/she deals with the target language in all situations, we necessarily have a less than real situation. However, it should be the aim of the test setter to try and complement real situations as much as possible. Referring to the difficulty of identifying the elements of communicative testing Morrow (1991) statesThe essential question which a communicative test must answer is whether or not (or how well) a candidate can use language to communicate meanings. But communicate meanings is very elusive criterion indeed on which to base judgment.(Morrow, 1991 112)There have been attempts to develop a model for communicative competence and valid tests of its components. Bachman and Palmer (1984 35) key three approaches the skill-component approach, communicative approach and measurement approach to specify what language tests measure. Offering a detailed interpretation of the Canale-Swain communicative approach, Bachman and Palmer specify some factors (trait factors, modal auxiliary verb f actors, method factors) that should be considered while designing a performance test. Having examined the structure of a model which encompasses these three factors, Skehan (1991 9) regarded it as being of pivotal importance in influencing the language testing theories and practices throughout the 1990s. Later Bachman went further as he offered important distinctions between task-based and construct-based approaches to test design. He explainedThe procedures for design, development, and use of language tests must hold both a specification of the assessment task to be included and definition of the abilities to be assessed.(Bachman, 2000 456)Task based language assessment gave rise to two questions a) How real-life task types are identified, selected and characterized and how pedagogic or assessment tasks are related to these (Bachman, 2000 459) .The discussion of different approaches to language testing are concerned with their strengths and limitations in terms of the criteria of validity and reliability. Validity in language testing is about whether a test can measure what it is intended to measure. Other arguments regarding the test validity include the question of content relevance and representativeness, task difficulty etc. Reliability refers to the extent to which test scores are consistent.Assessing second language writing judging of second language writing has been discussed on the basis of two different approaches objective test of writing and direct test of writing. Objective tests claim to test writing through verbal reasoning, error recognition and other measures that have been shown fairly highly with measured writing ability (Lyons, 1991 5). In direct tests of writing, actual samples of students writings are assessed. In fact, direct tests of writing have won the support of many researchers as they engage students with more communicative and creative task types. However, this approach has also been criticised for lacking reliability. Despite th eir problems with reliability, direct tests are still very popular in many academic settings throughout the world.Kiato et al. (1996 2) refer to some typical problems of testing writing. They point out that testing writing objectively may not necessarily reflect the way it is used by the students in the real world. On the other hand, testing of writing in a way that reflects how the students use writing in real world is difficult to try objectively and the test setters has less control over the writing tasks. However, they argue that the ability to write should involve six component skills- grammatical ability, lexical ability, mechanically skillful ability, stylistic skills, organisational skills and judgment of appropriacy. Among the writing tasks they find useful are gap filling, form completion, making corrections, letter and essay writing.Weir (1988 63-4) offers an elaborate discussion on both indirect (objective) and direct tests and distinguishes the two types. He argues tha t writing can be divided into discrete elements such as grammar, vocabulary and punctuation etc. and these elements are tested separately by the use of objective tests. He suggested that both productive and receptive skills can be broken down in to levels of grammar and lexis agree to a discrete point framework and objective tasks such as cloze, selective deletion, gap filling etc. can be designed for testing reading with writing. Weir describes the direct test of writing as a more integrative test which tests a candidates ability to perform veritable of the functional tasks required in the performance of duties in the target situation.Research on writing involving both native speakers and second language are also concerned with basic studies of the nature of writing process in order to relate them to the validity of writing test tasks. Some of the questions concerned are1. To what extent is performance influenced by the amount of prior knowledge that writers have about the topic that they are asked to write about in a test? 2. Does it make a difference how the writing task is specified on the test paper? 3. Do different types of tasks produce significant difference in the performance of learners in a writing test? (Read, 1991 77) Johns (1991 171) suggests three criteria for academic testing of writing- (1) use of reading for writing assessment testing for audience awareness, (2) exploitation of habitual writing genres argumentation and problem solution, and (3) testing of subject matter, conceptual control and planning. He insists that reading and writing be combined to give a more authentic context for testing writing for academic purpose. He saysBecause reading and writing are interconnected at all academic levels, it seems unprofessional and sure unacademic to test writing without the genuine interactivity that reading provides.(Johns, 19991 176)Literature on testing has suggested different strategies to cope with the problem of making direct writing t asks. The problem with these tasks is they are very difficult to mark as the marking of such tasks is somewhat subjective. One solution suggested by many testing experts is to use an analytical marking scheme to help make the marking consistent. Murphy (1979 19) outlined the nature of a marking scheme demanded by the Associated Examining Boards, A marking scheme is a comprehensive document indicating the explicit criteria against which candidates answers will be judged it enables the examiners to relate particular marks to answers of specified quality.There have been discussions on two types of marking for free writing tasks- impressionistic and analytic. However there are arguments over what valid and reliable measures of writing can be used and what susceptibility be the relationship of these measures to overall impressionistic quality rating. The TOFEL examination included a direct writing measure (Connor, 1991 216) in 1986 for the test of written English that was marked holisti cally (TOFEL test of written English guide 1989).A great deal of research was conducted by the Educational Testing Service into the development and organization of a measure to assess communicative competence in writing (Bridgman Carlson, 1983 Carlson et al. 1985). A holistic scoring guide was developed to mark two general topics-comparison/contrast and describing a graph that had six levels and included syntactic and rhetorical criteria. The Test of Written English Scoring Guidelines (1989) identified the following criteria of a written task.An essay in the highest category is- well organized and well developed, effectively addressed the writing task, uses appropriate details to support or illustrate ideas, shows unity, tackiness and progression, displays consistent facility in the use of language, and show ups syntactic variety and appropriate word choice.(The Test of Written English Scoring Guidelines, 989)The marking scheme suggested by ELTIP to help teachers assess writing c ompositions is made on the basis of five criteria- grammar, vocabulary, mechanical accuracy, communication and content. A Marking scheme like this shows how developments in language testing research are providing models to cope with the challenges of marking writing tasks.The SSC Curriculum, syllabus and the testThe SSC is the school leaving public examination for grad 10 students. English is a compulsory subject at this level and the test of English is an achievement test in kind. The test is designed to test reading and writing skills only as there is no provision of testing listening and speaking skills.The NCTB syllabus of English focuses on the development of the four skills through learner-centred activities within meaningful contexts. It gives importance to choosing contexts which reflect actual social situations outside the classroom and make the learning of English relevant, interesting and enjoyable. It is expected as per the syllabus that students should achieve an elemen tary to intermediate command of the four language skills by the end of secondary level. The curriculum document specifies the objective and purposes of learning English as it statesEnglish needs to be recognised as an essential work-oriented skill that is needed if the employment, development and educational needs of the country are to be met successfully. increase communicative competence in English, therefore, constitutes a vital skill for learners at this stage.(SSC Syllabus Document, 1999, NCTB 136)Terminal competencies in four skills are specified in the NCTB syllabus. The competencies for writing skills for grade 10 are defined as followsStudents should be able to-a) write simple dialogues, formal and informal letters including letters of application and reports. b) demonstrate imagination and creativity in appropriate writing forms. c) fill in the forms (i.e. job applications etc.) and write a curriculum vitae d) plan and organise the above tasks expeditiously so as to commun icate ideas and facts clearly, accurately and with relevance to the topic. e) take notes and dictationsf) use different punctuation and geographical devices appropriately.